Teaching models prescribe tested steps and procedures to effectively generate desired outcomes. In general, models can be classified along a continuum from instructor-directed, to student-instructor negotiated, to student-directed (see Figure below).

To help you choose a model, you should know that instructor-directed models are the norm for college campuses, and are criticized for not actively involving students and for often failing to challenge students to think at high levels (e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Student-directed models require considerably more interest and effort from the students and are criticized for consuming a lot of class time to cover smaller amounts of information at greater depths. A greater chance exists for higher-level thinking via student-directed models, however. Social models provide a common ground between the two extremes. The models listed below are classified by this three-tiered taxonomy.

Teaching models prescribe tested steps and procedures to effectively generate desired outcomes. In general, models can be classified along a continuum from instructor-directed, to student-instructor negotiated, to student-directed (see Figure below). To help you choose a model, you should know that instructor-directed models are the norm for college campuses, and are criticized for not actively involving students and for often failing to challenge students to think at high levels (e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Student-directed models require considerably more interest and effort from the students and are criticized for consuming a lot of class time to cover smaller amounts of information at greater depths. A greater chance exists for higher-level thinking via student-directed models, however. Social models provide a common ground between the two extremes. The models listed below are classified by this three-tiered taxonomy.
Top-Down, Teacher Delivered, "Direct" Instruction The Audio Tutorial Approach is a mastery learning model relevant for those working with large lecture classes or wishing to develop independent study materials. Relevant for most fields, including linguistics, languages, and performance arts; originally designed for sciences. The Personalized System of Instruction is a mastery learning model, emphasizing independent study and proctored-testing. Relevant for those instructors wishing to develop self-paced teaching resources (e.g., web modules). In Goal-Based Scenarios, instructors develop a motivational goal for learners that requires the application of certain skills and competencies. Relevant for most fields.
Blend, from "Direct" to "Social" Case-Based Teaching can be used to engage students in critical thinking and decision making about realistic problems in a discipline. Relevant for most fields; used extensively in law, business, medicine, education, architecture, and engineering. In Guided Design models, students work independently on mastery learning materials (typically outside of class), then apply this knowledge to authentic problems within class. Relevant for instructors wishing to spend less class time on basic course facts and concepts, opting instead for discussion and application to more elaborate problems.
"Social" Models, Student-Teacher Negotiated Anchored Instruction prescribes learning through realistic problems and allows students to experience the same professional dilemmas faced by experts in a given field. Relevant for most fields; originally designed for mathematics. Cognitive Apprenticeship involves instructors in outlining, then modeling expert-like processes for students. Students apply the processes on their own, utilizing teacher-developed scaffolds. Students discuss their reasoning processes with other learners. Relevant for some fields (e.g., writing, mathematics). Cooperative Learning involves students in collaborative or team-based tasks (e.g., group problem solving, paper writing, projects). Students are responsible for their own and for their teammates' understanding. Relevant for any discipline; valuable for promoting reasoning and critical thinking.
Blend of "Social" and "Radical" Constructionist; Project-Based Models suggest students learn about topics by developing materials or completing a design task (e.g., Web pages, videos, models). This "learning by creating" approach is applicable to engineering, architecture, history, social sciences, and other fields where students interpret and re-present information in varied forms (i.e., two or three interpretations of the same event, two or three solutions or designs for the same problem).
Bottom-Up Models, Student-Centered, "Radical" Problem-Based Learning engages student teams in advanced problem solving. Teams are responsible for problem analysis, research, and solutions. Instructors coach teams as needed. Relevant for most fields; used extensively in medicine and business. Learning Environments support students on authentic problem-solving tasks through extensive resources, tools, and scaffolds. Relevant for any field with complex problems or any instructor wishing to engage learners in critical thinking.